A variety of medical procedures are performed with less invasive approaches to reach distant locations within a patient's body. These procedures can be used, for example, for entry into the abdominal cavity or into the urinary track, or for reaching the patient's genitals. However, many of the procedures are performed within the cardiovascular system. For any of these procedures, a guidewire can be used to snake through the patient to position the tip of the guidewire at a desired location. A catheter and/or other medical devices can be positioned by sliding them over the guidewire to the appropriate location. Visualization techniques may be important since the physician generally cannot directly see the intervention site within the patient. X-rays can be used in the visualization technique due to their penetrative ability. Visualization then is based on using materials that are not transparent to x-rays so that the x-rays produce a discernable image.
Generally, to position the guidewire, the guidewire traverses along a pathway, such as through vessels of the cardiovascular system, that generally has bends and branches. To navigate along the curves and branches, the guidewire and catheters are flexible and to some degree steerable. Through the application of torque, the tip can be guided along a selected path within the patient. Generally, a portion of the guidewire at or near the tip is formed from a radiopaque material to provide for identification of the tip position. As further devices are delivered to the intervention site, these other devices generally also have a radiopaque portion that provides for some degree of visualizing the position of the device.
Many less invasive procedures create the possibility of emboli formation as a result of the procedure. Also, some procedures may be specifically initiated to capture and/or remove emboli, which have been generated or have a risk of being generated as a result of a procedure, injury and/or disease. An embolus can be any particle comprising a foreign and/or native material, which enters the vascular system or other vessel of the body with potential to cause occlusion of flow, e.g., blood flow. Emboli can be formed from aggregates of fibrin, blood cells or fragments thereof, collagen, cholesterol, plaque, fat, calcified plaque, bubbles, arterial tissue, and/or other miscellaneous fragments or combinations thereof.
Emboli can lodge, for example, in the narrowing regions of medium size blood vessels that feed the major organs. Loss of blood flow to surrounding tissue can cause localized cell death or microinfarcts. Cerebral microinfarcts can cause stroke leading to confusion, disturbance of speech, paralysis, visual disturbances, balance disturbances and even death. In the heart, emboli can cause myocardial infarcts, i.e. heart attacks. Myocardial infarction refers to the death of a section of myocardium or middle layer of the heart muscle. Myocardial infarction can result from at least partial blockage of the coronary artery or its branches. Blockage of capillaries associated with the coronary arteries can result in corresponding microinfarctions/microinfarcs. Resulting impairments are frequently short term but can be permanent.
Many clinical procedures can result in emboli including, for example, coronary, carotid, and peripheral interventions. In these cases, particulate matter, including, for example, plaque, debris and thrombus, can form emboli distal to the site of intervention. As a result, blood flow to the distal vascular bed can be diminished and periprocedural end-organ ischemia and infarction can result. Distal embolization of large particles produced at the time of such interventions as balloon inflation or stent deployment may obstruct large, epicardial vessels, and smaller particles (as small as 15-100 microns) can cause microinfarcts and/or myocardial infarctions and left ventricular dysfunction.
A significant reason for ischemic injury during percutaneous procedures can be generation of emboli that block smaller distal vessels. One approach to curb this complication has been to use pharmacological therapies during the time of the intervention. Limited therapeutic success has been reported with the use of calcium channel blockers, adenosine, and sodium nitroprusside (Webb, J G, Carere, R G, Virmani, R, Baim, D, Teirstein, P S, Whitlow, P, McQueen, C, Kolodgie, F D, Buller, E, Dodek, A, Mancini, G B, & Oesterle, S: Retrieval and analysis of particulate debris after saphenous vein graft intervention. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000, 34:468-475, incorporation herein by reference.). Glyoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors have been used for percutaneous coronary interventions to reduce platelet aggregation, but also fail to show meaningful long term clinical benefit. (Mathew, V, Grill, D E, Scott, C G, Grantham, J A, Ting, H H, Garratt, K N, & Holmes, D R, Jr. The influence of abciximab use on clinical outcome after aortocoronary vein graft interventions. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999, 34:1163-1169 and Mak, K H, Challapalli, R, Eisenberg, M J, Anderson, K M, Califf, R M, & Topol, E J: Effect of platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor inhibition on distal embolization during percutaneous revascularization of aortocoronary saphenous vein grafts. EPIC Investigators, Evaluation of IIb/IIIa platelet receptor antagonist 7E3 in Preventing Ischemic Complications. Am J Cardiol 1997, 80:985-988, both of which are incorporated herein by reference.) However, since embolization often develops from physical disruption of fibrotic plaque, a mechanism of therapeutic embolic protection specifically targeted at prevention of platelet aggregation and blood clotting may have little effect on these already-formed, embolizable plaques.